[3] Finally, activation of iNKT cells with αGalCer caused rapid weight loss, and reversal of glucose and insulin sensitivity without hypoglycaemia.[3, 39] Hence, the scenario appears that iNKT cells normally reside in adipose tissue, produce mainly Th2 and regulatory cytokines and positively regulate anti-inflammatory macrophages

and adipocyte function. In an obese setting, adipose iNKT cells are depleted, representing the loss of an important regulatory population and at the same time, adipose tissue becomes an inflammatory environment due to an accumulation of pro-inflammatory macrophages (Fig. 2). Although the exact Regorafenib clinical trial pathway of iNKT cell regulation is not yet clear, it appears that adipose iNKT cells can directly regulate macrophage levels and phenotype, and therefore inflammation. However, the role of iNKT cells in the protection against obesity, weight gain and metabolic disorder has been somewhat controversial. The similarities and differences selleck kinase inhibitor between these studies are summarized below. To study the effects of

iNKT cells on obesity and metabolism control, there are a number of methods that have been applied. Most research groups have used models of iNKT cell deficiency, namely CD1d−/− and Jα18−/− mice. Mice lacking CD1d, which is essential for iNKT cell development, do not develop iNKT cells. However, these mice not only lack type I NKT cells but also type II NKT cells, Etoposide as well as CD1d itself, which is expressed on adipocytes and other non-hepatopoietic cells and so may be an important molecule in metabolism. Jα18−/− mice have

a specific deficiency in the invariant chain of the NKT TCR, and specifically lack iNKT cells, but it has recently come to light that Jα18−/− mice have lower TCR diversity than was first thought,[59] which could potentially contribute to any phenotype observed. Loss or gain of function after birth in wild-type mice may be a more appropriate method to study iNKT cell function in obesity. Mice can develop with a normal T-cell repertoire, and then iNKT cells can be depleted or adoptively transferred into mice to measure the effect on weight and metabolism. However, there is currently no way to specifically deplete iNKT cells in vivo. The common method is to use anti-NK1.1 antibody; however, this also depletes NK cells, which often outnumber iNKT cells. This method also would not deplete iNKT cells lacking the NK1.1 receptor, which is a substantial proportion of adipose iNKT cells. We, and others, have performed gain of function studies, by adoptively transferring iNKT cells into obese wild-type and iNKT-deficient mice, as well as specifically activating them by injection of αGalCer. In the recent studies that aimed to determine the role, if any, for iNKT cells in obesity, the main discrepancies between laboratories were seen in the mouse models of iNKT cell deficiency. On one side of the argument, Ohmura et al.