” [4, p. 22027]. Limits and barriers to adaptation can be natural, technological, economic, social or formal institutional. Natural limits range from ecosystem thresholds to geographical and geological limitations

[19]. Dramatic climate change may alter physical environment so as to limit adaptation possibilities [23]. The limits of adaptation will also depend on the inherent sensitivity of some ecosystems, habitats and species [5]. The impacts of climate change can surpass critical thresholds [5] and cause ecosystem regime shifts [24], which in turn can limit economic and social adaptation [25] especially of communities those directly depend selleck compound on ecosystems such as fisheries and agriculture [5]. Technological barriers (sometimes classified as limits if unaffordable) to adaptation include lack of hard engineering structures, e.g., [26] but lack of smaller equipment, tools and techniques may also constrain adaptation. Although some adaptations may be technologically possible, they may be constrained by economic and cultural barriers [5]. Technological barriers may also lead to inaccurate information due to, for example, limitations in modelling the climate BGB324 cell line system or lack of accurate weather forecasts. Insufficient information and knowledge on the impacts of climate change may continue to hinder adaptation particularly in Asia [27]. Economic barriers constrain

adaptation of low-income households and communities [5]. Mahon [28] contended that cost of vessel insurance, gear replacement, repairs, operation, safety measures and increased investment were all barriers to adaptation among fishing communities. In agricultural communities, lack of financial capital is one barrier to adaptation, such as adoption of improved crop varieties and diversification of livelihoods [29]. In recent years microfinance has emerged in many developing countries but it does not often reach the poorest and most vulnerable groups [30] and [31]. Budget constraints can also Thalidomide pose a barrier when adaptation measures involve high upfront cost. Those with limited financial

capital will focus on short-term gain rather than on the potential long-term benefits of reduced vulnerability [32] and [33]. Some studies have pointed out the significance of social barriers to adaptation [6], [14], [19] and [34]. Adger et al. [6] suggest that ethics (how and what people value), knowledge (how and what people know), risk (how and what people perceive) and culture (how and what people live) are key aspects of social barriers. Thus social barriers are concerned with the social and cultural processes of society [19] including informal institutions and human capital. People perceive, interpret, and think about risks and adaptation to them depending on their worldviews, values and beliefs [4] and [5].