FMD changes rapidly in response to beneficial or noxious stimuli, making it a useful tool for

assessing the immediate impact of interventions on the vasculature. Studies in healthy volunteers have used changes in FMD as an end-point for vaccine assessment. We have previously shown that vaccination adversely affects FMD, and this effect is mitigated by pretreatment with statins [14]. Consistent with and extending Akt inhibitor previously published data, the novel influenza A/H1N1 vaccine significantly impaired FMD in HIV-infected patients, and this effect lasted for at least 48 h. The clinical implications of our study pertain to cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected patients. Viraemia represents a low-grade stimulus; vaccination Ibrutinib research buy may be superimposed as an acute insult, thus creating a highly pro-inflammatory milieu accompanied by worsening endothelial function. In the presence of an already dysfunctional endothelium, as is the case for HIV infection [17], the combination could result in untoward events. However, no short-term adverse cardiovascular events

have been reported following vaccinations in the setting of HIV infection [22]. In the general population, conflicting data exist regarding the potential of seasonal vaccination to defer acute myocardial infarction [23,24]. A number of studies have linked influenza infection with elevated cardiovascular risk [25]. Such a link has been found for the seasonal influenza strains

in the general population; indeed, the prevalence of acute myocardial infarction rises following an influenza infection. In the light of such reports, seasonal influenza infection has been acknowledged as a novel risk factor for cardiovascular events [26]. However, no such data exist on the pandemic H1N1 influenza strain, or for HIV-infected patients [27]. Regarding vaccination against the seasonal strains of influenza, it has been reported second that vaccination reduces the risk of myocardial infarction in the general population [28], as well as in patients with coronary heart disease [29]. To date, however, there is a paucity of studies regarding vaccination in HIV-infected patients [30]. Apart from providing clinical insights into the effects of vaccination in a high-risk group, the combination of HIV infection and the novel influenza A/H1N1 vaccine in our study has utility as a new model for studying endothelial responses to vaccination. Vaccines may not be equal with respect to their inflammatory and endothelial effects. The inclusion of different antigens (bacterial or viral) and the use of booster substances may result in different degrees of vascular reactivity. However, it should be noted that people with different immunological backgrounds may respond in different ways to vaccination, and our results cannot be directly extrapolated to the general population.