Insulin resistance is extremely common and this work demonstrates the impact of short-term insulin resistance on hippocampal energetics in response to mild cognitive activity in healthy volunteers. The application of this model of insulin resistance in the study of brain energetics proposes important new metabolic concepts that may explain the recognized links between insulin resistance and cognitive impairment. The concepts and supporting data demonstrated in this work provide the basis for further work in animal and human models to confirm the precise mechanisms linking cognitive activity with insulin-mediated glucose uptake in the brain. Conclusion It is generally accepted that the belief that

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the brain is insensitive to insulin is no longer tenable, but Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the widely held belief that fats do not cross the blood–brain barrier have persisted. Consequently, there have been extremely few studies in the brain that utilize

manipulation of fat levels. This study presents a novel application of lipid infusion as a tool to investigate dynamic metabolic mechanisms in the human brain and demonstrates a valuable new in vivo experimental model to investigate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical insulin resistance in the human brain. Furthermore, this is the first mechanistic study to demonstrate the potential metabolic consequences of experimental insulin resistance in the normal human brain. The findings in this study suggest that insulin signaling plays an important role in matching cognitive activity with the required dynamic increases in glucose uptake in the brain. Acknowledgments The authors thank Emma Carter, Cardiac Metabolism Research Group at the University of Oxford, for her help with processing the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical laboratory assays and Dr. Niki Sibson of the Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics at the University of Oxford, for her helpful comments on the manuscript. The work was supported by funding from the British

Heart Foundation and the Department Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of Health. Author contributions: Y. E. developed the hypothesis, designed the study, obtained ethical approval, recruited and studied the subjects, analyzed the data, and prepared the Isotretinoin manuscript. L. E. C. analyzed the spectroscopy data, performed the statistical analysis, and edited the manuscript. D. J. T. developed the spectroscopy acquisition and VX-689 mw analysis protocols, and edited the manuscript. C. A. J. compiled the neuropsychological test battery, reviewed the data, and edited the manuscript. A. D. S. contributed to the experimental design and edited the manuscript. K. C. contributed to the experimental design and edited the manuscript. Conflict of Interest None declared.
Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type in the central nervous system (CNS). They were originally regarded as passive structural elements that provided a substrate for neuronal growth and synaptic connectivity.