We identify when and how genetic factors should be considered in the various stages of forest ecosystem restoration, pose key research questions, and conclude by providing practical recommendations for the communities of researchers, policy makers, and restoration practitioners to improve the potential for the long-term success of restoration efforts. In sites with low to intermediate levels of degradation, where soils are largely intact and there MAPK Inhibitor Library are sufficient germplasm sources for the next generation (e.g., mature trees or a soil seed bank), natural regeneration may be the best choice (Chazdon, 2008). This bypasses some of

the risks associated with introducing germplasm, by promoting the maintenance of genetic integrity and the recruitment of well-adapted seedlings. However, in sites where: (i) diverse native seed sources are lacking or insufficient, (ii) seed sources suffer from genetic erosion; and/or Selleckchem JQ1 (iii) active planting is envisaged, the introduction of forest reproductive material from off-site may either be advantageous or the only solution, at least in the short term. The first decision with respect to planting material concerns species selection. In order to restore self-sustaining ecosystems

and their services, native species are generally preferred over exotics, although exotic species may be useful or even necessary in some cases, for example, as nurse crops to ameliorate the microenvironment on very degraded sites (Lamb, 2012, Montagnini and Finney, 2011, Newton, 2011 and Thomas, 2014). Native species are expected to be adapted to local biotic and abiotic conditions and thus support native biodiversity and ecosystem function to a greater degree than exotics (Tang et al., 2007). In Dipeptidyl peptidase addition, evidence is growing for the importance

of choosing tree species that are representative of different functional groups based on adaptive traits (Aerts and Honnay, 2011, Davis et al., 2011 and Laughlin, 2014). However, selecting native species on the basis of functional group requires more knowledge than is currently available about traits associated with their reproductive biology, phenology, and propagation. This knowledge gap may often compromise the optimal selection and use of native species for restoration and result in the selection of better documented, but less suited, exotic species (Boshier et al., 2009, Godefroid et al., 2011 and Newton, 2011). Species choice is followed by the identification of appropriate sources of planting material. If FRM is not adapted to site conditions, there may be severe consequences such as low initial survival or high mortality before reaching reproductive age (Bresnan et al., 1994).