The hierarchical clustering was carried out using the Cluster pro

The hierarchical clustering was carried out using the Cluster program (Pearson correlation, average linkage) and visualized by TreeView (University of California at Berkeley, CA) [20]. The functional profiling of each protein cluster was performed using the g:Profiler annotation tool (University of Tartu, Estonia) under the criteria of P < .05. We started by analyzing the effects of different PTEN mutations on disease-free survival (DFS) of patients BMN-673 with GBM, which reflects the effectiveness of treatment and the tendency for cancer recurrence. A total number of 586 patients with complete genomic sequencing and clinical data

from the TCGA GBM data set [16] were selected for analysis in this study. The spectrum of PTEN mutation in the TCGA GBM data set was similar to that reported previously [14], including missense (51.2%), nonsense (16.9%), frameshift (24.9), and other types of mutations (7%; Figure 1A). Using Cox propor- tional hazards analysis, we analyzed the independent effects of PTEN mutation, promoter methylation and expression (protein and mRNA levels by arrays), genomic instability, and Karnofsky performance scale on DFS of patients with GBM. Intriguingly, nonsense muta- tions of PTEN associated with significantly shorter DFS (median, 3.8 months) than other mutations or wild-type genotype (median, 7.2 months), displaying higher

HR of 3.26 (95% CI = 1.48-7.20; Figure 1, B and C ). On the contrary, missense or frameshift muta- tions showed no significant association with DFS of patients with GBM. Moreover, overexpression of PTEN protein also

associated with shorter www.selleckchem.com/products/MDV3100.html DFS (median, 6.0 months) than other cases (median, 7.0 months), with increased HR of 1.31 (95% CI = 1.07-1.61; Figure 1, B and D). No correlation was found between patient DFS and PTEN mRNA level or promoter methylation, the number of mutations (as revealed by genomic sequencing), or fraction of genome with copy number alteration (CNA, an indication of genomic instability) DNA Damage inhibitor in GBM cases. The different effects of PTEN mutations on DFS suggest that these mutations also confer distinct biologic consequences. Because loss of PTEN function has been linked to genomic instability and impaired DNA repair ability [21], we compared the number of mutations and fraction of genome with CNA in patients with GBM carrying different types of PTEN mutations. Although missense, non- sense, and frameshift mutations were all found to increase the fraction of genome with CNA (Mann-Whitney test, P < .05; Figure 2A), only nonsense mutation of PTEN associated with a higher number of mutations in GBM tissues (Mann-Whitney test, P < .05; Figure 2B). Furthermore, nonsense mutation of PTEN also linked to decreased levels of p53 and Gata3 proteins (Mann-Whitney test, P < .05), but such link was not evident for missense or frameshift mutations ( Figure 2, D and E).

However, uncertainties were relatively high during low flow seaso

However, uncertainties were relatively high during low flow seasons, which can be seen as a model deficiency in simulating groundwater flow ( Rostamian et al., 2008). The model performance metric values in Table 3, and P-factor, and R-factor indicate the model is reliable in simulating Brahmaputra basin streamflow. Graphical comparisons of observed and simulated streamflow at a monthly scale for calibration (1988–1997), validation (1998–2004), and baseline (1988–2004) periods are shown in Fig. 3. In general, the model accurately tracked the observed streamflow for the time periods, although some Bortezomib peak flow months were underpredicted during calibration, but the under-prediction was less during validation,

possibly due to less temporal variability in the precipitation. Monthly flow statistics in Table 3 suggest a strong correlation between simulated LY294002 cell line and observed streamflow in all three periods. The NS coefficients for simulated streamflows were 0.85, 0.88, and 0.73 for the calibration, validation, and baseline periods, respectively. These coefficients suggest that model performance for monthly streamflow was relatively better than daily. The model underpredicted streamflows for the calibration and validation periods by 3.2% and 4.4%, respectively. The regression lines and sum difference plots reveal that the underprediction occurred primarily during higher flows (Fig. 3b, c, e, and f). Literature suggests that SWAT

is not designed to simulate extreme events and the model usually underpredicts the largest flow events (Chu Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase and Shirmohammadi, 2004 and Tolson and Shoemaker, 2004). However, a positive bias for simulated streamflow of 2.9% was noticeable for the baseline. The notable 1999 overprediction of peak flow may have contributed to this positive bias in simulated streamflow. Overall, the SWAT model was able to simulate well the actual hydrological conditions in the Brahmaputra basin. Ten sensitive parameters were used to calibrate the model (Table 1). These parameters primarily represented surface runoff, groundwater, snow, ET, and the routing process for the basin’s hydrology.

The values for the following parameters were found to be commonly used in other studies to calibrate the SWAT model: CN2 (SCS runoff curve number for moisture condition II), ESCO (soil evaporation compensation factor), ALPHA_BF (baseflow alpha factor), SLSUBBSN (average slope length), GWQMN (threshold depth of water in the shallow aquifer required for return flow to occur), and GW_REVAP (ground revap coefficient) (Cibin et al., 2010, Ghaffari et al., 2010, Heuvelmans et al., 1999, Mutenyo et al., 2013 and Wu et al., 2012a). While the final fitted values were optimized by the automatic calibration algorithm SUFI2, the values were checked for correspondence to the basin characteristics and their underlying hydrological processes. The average CN2 value was 61. The baseflow alpha factor value of 0.

Mas talvez mais dramática seja a relação dos IBP com o maior risc

Mas talvez mais dramática seja a relação dos IBP com o maior risco de infeção pelo C. difficile, dado que a diarreia associada a esta infeção é uma das principais causas de morbilidade e de aumento dos custos de cuidados de saúde em doentes hospitalizados. Numa meta‐análise publicada recentemente no American Journal of Gastroenterology 4, os AA referem um aumento de Anticancer Compound Library datasheet 65% de incidência da diarreia associada ao C. difficile em doentes sob medicação com IBP. Há cerca de 2 anos houve movimentos cívicos, nos Estados Unidos (Public Citizen – Protecting Health, Safety and Democracy), que alertaram

para a generalização do uso crónico dos IBP e, nomeadamente, para o risco de dependência desse uso crónico 5. Essa dependência

poderá ser justificada pelo efeito rebound, dado que o doente terá maior dificuldade em suspender a medicação de IBP devido ao agravamento imediato dos sintomas. Parafraseando Dharmarajan (Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Nova Iorque)6, hoje em dia os IBP são usados como água. Eles estão, de facto, entre a classe de drogas mais largamente ERK inhibitor cell line prescritas. E muitos doentes tomam inibidores sem o próprio conhecimento do seu médico assistente. Sabe‐se também que os IBP em baixas doses já fazem parte, desde 2009, em Portugal, da lista dos medicamentos não sujeitos a receita médica. É neste contexto que consideramos muito oportuna a publicação, no GE, do trabalho original intitulado «Uso inapropriado de inibidores da bomba de protões num serviço de medicina interna»7. A sua originalidade, para além da importância de poder traduzir a realidade nacional, resulta, também, do facto de se focar no uso inapropriado dos IBP em meio hospitalar. Os resultados do estudo sugerem que, provavelmente, um número considerável de prescrições desnecessárias de medicamentos antisecretores na prática geral é iniciado em meio hospitalar. As intervenções educativas para

reduzir a prescrição de IBP a nível da comunidade foram, no Reino TCL Unido, dececionantes, segundo um estudo realizado no Hospital de Swansea8: na análise realizada antes da intervenção, 24% dos doentes estavam a receber tratamento com IBP prescrito na comunidade e, desses, em 54% dos casos o IBP tinha sido prescrito de forma inadequada. Seis meses após a intervenção educativa, 26% dos doentes recebidos no hospital estavam sob medicação com IBP e em 51% dos casos não havia indicação para essa medicação, segundo as normas do NICE9. No trabalho aqui publicado, para além de se pretender avaliar se o uso profilático dos IBP foi apropriado, concluindo‐se que numa elevada percentagem (40%) deles se fez uso sem indicação, houve ainda a intenção de calcular o respetivo impacto financeiro negativo.

Microcontact imprinting method has been used for various proteins

Microcontact imprinting method has been used for various proteins [23], [24], [25], [26] and [27]. BSA (bovine serum albumin) is a protein with the molecular weight of 66.5 kDa and it has many uses in biomedical applications and enzymatic reactions. It is used to prevent adhesion of enzymes during applications [28]. It is a generally used protein reagent in protein assays, like Bradford assay, to measure the concentration of a protein in solution. Furthermore, BSA has a structural homology with HSA (human serum albumin) [29]. Due to this, BSA is frequently studied as a model protein instead of HSA. Moreover, BSA is a commonly used target to analyze when designing new immunochemical

assays. Determination of micro-quantities of BSA is possible with methods like radioimmunoassay (RIA) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay this website (ELISA) [30]. There are also some determinations like FT-IR spectroscopy, polarographic and fluorimetric measurements used for BSA detection [28], [31] and [32]. Some of the methods require a labelled reagent like a radioisotope or enzyme labeled antibody/antigen [30]. Some of them are really expensive and need time-consuming, complex procedures. Low selectivity

and sensitivity is the another drawback NLG919 concentration of these methods [33]. Direct, label-free, fast and sensitive measurement of various analytes with biosensors has attracted considerable interest [34]. Highly sensitive biosensor concepts make it possible to assay biomacromolecules at concentrations below the limit of detection of conventional methods [35]. Capacitive biosensors are the electrochemical sensors that measure changes in the dielectric properties Teicoplanin when an analyte interacts with a biorecognition element on the sensor surface, causing a decrease in the capacitance [36], [37], [38], [39], [40] and [41]. Capacitive biosensors have been used for the detection of various analytes like antigens, antibodies,

proteins and heavy metal ions [42], [43], [44], [45], [46] and [47]. These types of biosensors have a lot of advantages like inherent rapidity, high sensitivity, simplicity, low cost, easy manipulation and real-time measurement without labeling. In the study reported here, a capacitive biosensor with an automated-flow injection system was used for BSA detection. BSA is most commonly used model protein in the macromolecular imprinting studies. However, to our knowledge, this is the first microcontact-BSA imprinting study for the detection of BSA with the capacitive biosensor. Microcontact imprinting method was applied for the imprinting of BSA onto the pre-modified gold electrode surface. After modification of the gold electrode surface with poly-tyramine and acryloyl chloride, the protein stamp was brought together with a mixture of monomer and cross-linker in contact with the electrode. Thus, the microcontact BSA imprints were introduced to the electrode surface via UV-polymerization.

All cultures were incubated at 25°C in the dark The frequency of

All cultures were incubated at 25°C in the dark. The frequency of somatic embryo production was examined after 6 wk of culture by counting cultured embryogenic calluses that formed somatic embryos. When the callus produced globular-stage embryos on MS solid medium with Roxadustat 2,4-D and 3% sucrose, the globular embryos were removed and transferred to 500 mL-Erlenmeyer flasks containing 200 mL of liquid MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D and 3% sucrose for further growth. The liquid cultures were agitated at 100 rpm on a gyratory shaker in the dark. After

1 mo of culture, the proliferated globular embryos in flasks were transferred to individual petri dishes containing solid MS medium with gibberellic acid (GA3) and 3% sucrose for maturation and germination of embryos. The proliferated globular embryos in flasks were transferred to 40 mL MS solid medium

supplemented with GA3 and 3% sucrose in 100 mm × 20 mm plastic petri dishes for maturation and germination. To investigate the effect of GA3 concentration on maturation and germination of somatic click here embryos, 150 globular embryos were transferred to germination medium containing 0 mg/L, 1 mg/L, 3 mg/L, 5 mg/L, 7 mg/L, or 10 mg/L of GA3. Cultures were maintained at 23 ± 2°C under dim light illumination (12 μmol/m2/s) with a 16/8 h (light/dark) photoperiod. After 6 wk of culture, maturation and germination of embryos were examined. The experiment was repeated three times. When shoots reached 0.5–1.0 cm in height, the plantlets were transferred from germination medium to elongation medium, 50 mL MS solid medium supplemented with 5 mg/L GA3 in 100 mm × 40 mm plastic petri dishes, for shoot elongation. When shoots grew 3.0–4.0 cm in height, they were transferred to rooting medium, half or one-third strength MS, or Schenk and Hildebrandt (SH) basal medium supplemented with 0.25 mg/L 1-naphthaleneacetic Thalidomide acid (NAA) or with 0.5% activated charcoal, in 75 mm × 130 mm glass bottles, one shoot per bottle. Cultures were conducted in a culture room and maintained in a 16/8 h (light/dark) photoperiod with white fluorescent light (30 μmol/m2/s)

at 23 ± 2°C. After 4 wk, the results of rooting were examined. Plantlets with both shoots and roots were transferred to plastic pots (10 cm × 18 cm) containing an artificial soil mixture of peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite (2:3:1 v/v) and covered with a transparent polyvinyl film. The potted plants were cultivated in a growth room (40 μmol/m2/s, 16 h photoperiod, 25 ± 1°C). After 3 wk, the plants were hardened by removing the polyvinyl film gradually on a daily basis for 1 wk, and then the film was removed. After 3 mo of culture, the survived plants without wilting were counted. The acclimated plants were transplanted to glasshouse conditions or kept in the growth room for another 4–6 mo. Each of the treatments was performed three times.

The present study aims to overcome these identified weaknesses, b

The present study aims to overcome these identified weaknesses, by examining contemporary CNC practice free of any prior theoretical

commitment to the Strong Model, and to identify the key features, or unique value add of the CNC role as lived. This identification will facilitate more specific tailoring of design of education programs to prepare for the role. It will also provide an understanding that contributes to scenario-based modeling of possible futures for the nursing workforce. To identify the key features or unique value add of Epacadostat the CNC role as lived (free of theoretical commitment to the Strong Model). The scholarly tradition of Hermeneutic Phenomenology was used to explore the experience as lived of being a CNC in regional (North Coast of NSW) and metropolitan (Sydney NSW) locations. Five focus groups were conducted with a total of 37 CNCs Selleckchem Dabrafenib (18 metropolitan, 19 regional). Each group was guided by a facilitator and co-facilitator from the research team. Like all phenomenology there is no cook book style recipe of method that can be employed, but rather quality scholarship arises from adherence to the chosen philosophical tradition (Van Manen, 1979). Demonstration of scholarship and how the project ‘hangs together’ conceptually (Davey, 2006) allows the passing of the “so-what” test of significance (Sandelowski, 1997). This study used focus groups to allow

the researchers to fuse horizons (Gadamer, 1976) with CNCs in a group conversation related to the nature of the role. In keeping with hermeneutics (as opposed to transcendental phenomenology) this fusion involves a conscious effort to acknowledge the subjectivity of both the out participants and researchers as meaning is found in the contact between people, as opposed to a misguided quest to construct a perfect ‘subject less’ interaction (in which all prejudices can be identified and bracketed) between completely understood motives and the consciously performed action of research

to aimed at identifying universal essence (Gadamer, 1976 and Finlay, 2002). The group environment conducive to moving in a circular process from concrete to abstraction and back again while checking resonance with CNCs from different contexts. Participating CNCs responded to a general emailed invitation to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria were employment as a CNC in NSW. The conversation was not idle chatter but a dialog focused on the phenomena of which both participants and researchers had agreed to focus and shared a sense of relevance (Bernstein, 1983). The researchers began with the general invitation to discuss the experience of practicing as a CNC and had an interview guide that could be used to prompt, to reground the conversations as needed and to encourage a consistent approach to directing the discussion (see Table 1).

, 2004, Van Pelt, 2008 and Shuffield, 2011) Using CVS data to es

, 2004, Van Pelt, 2008 and Shuffield, 2011). Using CVS data to estimate current forest conditions, abundance of large trees decreased by almost 50% while basal area in large trees decreased by 64% since the time of the timber inventory (1914–1922, Table 5). The percentage AZD5363 cost of the area inventoried that supports at

least 25 large-diameter tph (>53 cm dbh) decreased by 70%, and the mean proportion of ponderosa pine in large-tree basal area decreased by 53% on Dry Mixed sites and 44% on Moist Mixed sites (Table 5). The contemporary estimates of large tree abundance contrast markedly with both the population levels of large trees and the collective area supporting at least 25 tph > 53 cm dbh that we found in the historical forests (Table 4 and Table 5). One important artifact of the scale at which the data were recorded (1.6 ha transect for 1920–1922 or four 1.6 ha transects from 1914 to 1919) is the ubiquitous mix of tree sizes which might lead one to infer that large areas of single-story older forest were absent. Unfortunately, at the coarse scale of this inventory,

any fine-scale patterning would not p38 MAPK inhibitor be apparent. The majority of the variability in structure in frequent-fire forests has been observed at spatial scales smaller than 0.4 ha (Larson and Churchill, 2012). The scale at which the inventory data were recorded homogenizes this patchiness, which has been shown to include widely spaced individuals, clusters of large trees, dense patches of regeneration, and

small openings (Franklin and Van Pelt, 2004 and Larson and Churchill, 2012). This fine-scale patchiness is still evident today in ponderosa pine sites on the 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase Reservation that have not been either intensively logged or burned (Johnson et al., 2008). The capacity for records and reconstructions of historical forests to represent conditions on a larger landscape has been questioned due to potential subjectivity in site selection and limited spatial extent (Bell et al., 2009). This timber inventory, consisting of transects systematically located to provide a 10–20% sample of the Reservation forests from lower to upper timberline, overcomes both of those limitations and is a record – not a reconstruction – of tree density by diameter and species for trees ⩾15 cm dbh. A landscape overwhelmingly occupied by low-density forests and dominated by large trees and fire- and drought-tolerant species is evident from these records. This historical landscape is consistent with most of the other reconstructions and records of historical forest conditions in central Oregon (Munger, 1917, Perry et al., 2004, Youngblood et al.

We identify when and how genetic factors should be considered in

We identify when and how genetic factors should be considered in the various stages of forest ecosystem restoration, pose key research questions, and conclude by providing practical recommendations for the communities of researchers, policy makers, and restoration practitioners to improve the potential for the long-term success of restoration efforts. In sites with low to intermediate levels of degradation, where soils are largely intact and there MAPK Inhibitor Library are sufficient germplasm sources for the next generation (e.g., mature trees or a soil seed bank), natural regeneration may be the best choice (Chazdon, 2008). This bypasses some of

the risks associated with introducing germplasm, by promoting the maintenance of genetic integrity and the recruitment of well-adapted seedlings. However, in sites where: (i) diverse native seed sources are lacking or insufficient, (ii) seed sources suffer from genetic erosion; and/or Selleckchem JQ1 (iii) active planting is envisaged, the introduction of forest reproductive material from off-site may either be advantageous or the only solution, at least in the short term. The first decision with respect to planting material concerns species selection. In order to restore self-sustaining ecosystems

and their services, native species are generally preferred over exotics, although exotic species may be useful or even necessary in some cases, for example, as nurse crops to ameliorate the microenvironment on very degraded sites (Lamb, 2012, Montagnini and Finney, 2011, Newton, 2011 and Thomas, 2014). Native species are expected to be adapted to local biotic and abiotic conditions and thus support native biodiversity and ecosystem function to a greater degree than exotics (Tang et al., 2007). In Dipeptidyl peptidase addition, evidence is growing for the importance

of choosing tree species that are representative of different functional groups based on adaptive traits (Aerts and Honnay, 2011, Davis et al., 2011 and Laughlin, 2014). However, selecting native species on the basis of functional group requires more knowledge than is currently available about traits associated with their reproductive biology, phenology, and propagation. This knowledge gap may often compromise the optimal selection and use of native species for restoration and result in the selection of better documented, but less suited, exotic species (Boshier et al., 2009, Godefroid et al., 2011 and Newton, 2011). Species choice is followed by the identification of appropriate sources of planting material. If FRM is not adapted to site conditions, there may be severe consequences such as low initial survival or high mortality before reaching reproductive age (Bresnan et al., 1994).

Current psychological treatments have been only partially success

Current psychological treatments have been only partially successful, and so developing more robust treatment applications to address this multi-faceted problem are warranted (Kearney, 2008; King & Bernstein, 2001; King et al., 2000). Findings from a large community sample of 9- Ponatinib nmr to 16-year-olds place three-month prevalence rates of anxiety-based SR and truancy at 8% (Egger et al., 2003). However, the picture complicates when broader definitions are included. National data have estimated that 20% of fourth- and eighth-graders have missed three days of school or more in the past month and 7% have missed

five days or more (National Center for Education Statistics, 2006). The short- and long-term effects of SR behavior are dramatic and include poor academic performance, social alienation, family conflict, and potential child maltreatment from lack of supervision (Last & Straus, 1990; Kearney & Albano, 2007; King & Bernstein, 2001; King et al., 2000). Continued absenteeism brings legal troubles, financial distress, and increased rates of high-risk behaviors (e.g., alcohol/drug use, perilous sexual NVP-BEZ235 ic50 behavior), and ultimately can be associated with poor long-term occupational and social functioning (Kearney, 2008; King & Bernstein, 2001). Moreover, SR can be a costly burden to the education system in terms of professional time (guidance counselors,

teachers, principals, social workers, etc.), as well as the expense of alternative schools for children who are terminated from the public school system for SR behavior. To address these needs, cognitive behavioral interventions have been examined and received modest empirical support. One test of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT; King et al., 1998), consisting of four Resveratrol weeks of individual CBT (6 sessions) plus parent and teacher training (5 sessions) resulted in 88% of youth returning to normal attendance (90% of days), compared to 29% of youth in a no-treatment waitlist. Other trials have demonstrated more modest outcomes. Last, Hansen, and Franco (1998)

compared individual CBT versus an attention placebo control, and results suggested that CBT may not be sufficient to produce change beyond education and support. Twelve weeks of CBT based on adult agoraphobia treatment resulted in 67% average attendance rates by posttreatment, and 65% of youth achieved 95% attendance, but these results were nonsignficantly different from the attention control. Notably, 27% of the participants dropped out of this study due to families seeking more treatment than was offered, refusing the offered treatment, or being terminated for excessive session cancellations. Similar results were found in a comparison of combined CBT plus tricyclic medication compared to CBT plus pill placebo (Bernstein et al., 2000).

The authors would like to express their gratitude

to Dr

The authors would like to express their gratitude

to Dr. Carmen Penido at the Laboratory of Applied Pharmacology (Farmanguinhos, FIOCRUZ) for her critical reading of this manuscript, Mr. Andre Benedito da Silva for animal care, Mrs. Ana Lucia Neves da Silva for her help with the microscopy, and Mrs. Moira Elizabeth Schottler and Mrs. Claudia Buchweitz for their assistance in editing the manuscript. This work was supported by grants from the Centres of Excellence Program (PRONEX/FAPERJ), the Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Carlos Chagas Filho, the Rio de Janeiro State selleck kinase inhibitor Research Supporting Foundation (FAPERJ), the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the São Paulo State Research Supporting Foundation (FAPESP), and Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ). “
“The corresponding author regrets the incorrect spelling of one of the authors’, S. Hari Subramanian. The correct spelling is Hari H. Subramanian. And also, both the authors Z.G. Huang and H.H. Subramanian contributed equally to this work. The authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. “
“Hendra virus and Nipah virus are

recently recognized bat-borne paramyxoviruses, each of which have repeatedly emerged causing significant morbidity and mortality in both animal and human populations since the mid to late 1990’s. Hendra virus was isolated in Australia from fatal cases of severe respiratory disease in horses and one person in the Brisbane suburb of Hendra in September, 1994, and was shown to be distantly

related Fasudil molecular weight to measles virus and other morbilliviruses (Murray et al., 1995). The same virus STK38 had also caused fatal infections in horses a month prior in Mackay, Australia, but this emergence was only recognized when one individual who was unknowingly exposed to the infected horses at that time developed a recrudescence of fatal meningoencephalitis 13 months later (O’Sullivan et al., 1997 and Wong et al., 2009). Hendra virus’ close relative, Nipah virus, emerged in peninsular Malaysia in 1998–99, in a large outbreak of respiratory disease in pigs along with numerous cases of encephalitis among pig farmers, eventually resulting in more than 100 human fatalities. Genetic and serological studies revealed the relatedness of this new virus to Hendra virus (Chua et al., 2000). Hendra virus and Nipah virus now represent the prototype species of the new genus Henipavirus within the paramyxovirus family ( Wang et al., 2013). Since their discovery, both Hendra virus and Nipah virus have continued to repeatedly cause spillover events into animals and/or people. Hendra virus infection among horses in Australia has occurred annually since 2006 and in total there have now been 7 human cases of which 4 have been fatal (Anonymous, 2009b and Playford et al., 2010). In all 7 human cases, Hendra virus was transmitted from infected horses to humans.